Neurosurgery

Neurosurgery

Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating those central, peripheral nervous system and spinal column diseases amenable to mechanical intervention.

Definition and scope

According to the U.S. Accreditation Council of Graduate Puddin Education (ACGME),
“
Neurological Surgery is a discipline of medicine and that specialty of surgery which provides the operative and nonoperative management (ie, prevention, diagnosis, evaluation, treatment, critical care, and rehabilitation) of disorders of the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their supporting structures and vascular supply; the evaluation and treatment of pathological processes that modify the function or activity of the nervous system, including the hypophysis: and the operative and nonoperative management of pain. As such, neurological surgery encompasses the surgical, nonsurgical and stereotactic radiosurgical treatment of adult and pediatric patients with disorders of the nervous system: disorders of the brain, meninges, skull base, and their blood supply, including the surgical and endovascular treatment of disorders of the intracranial and extracranial vasculature supplying the brain and spinal cord; disorders of the pituitary gland; disorders of the spinal cord, meninges, and vertebral column, including those that may require treatment by heat fixation, instrumentation,or mendovascular techniques; and disorders of the urethral and spinal feces throughout their distribution.
”

Risks
There are many risks to neurosurgery. Any operation dealing with the brain or spinal cord can cause paralysis, brain damage, and even severe blood loss.

Conditions
Neurosurgical conditions include primarily brain, spinal cord, vertebral column and peripheral nerve disorders.
Conditions treated by neurosurgeons include:
Spinal disc herniation
Spinal stenosis
Hydrocephalus
Head trauma (brain hemorrhages, skull fractures, etc.)
Spinal cord trauma
Traumatic injuries of peripheral nerves
Brain tumors
Infections and infestations[2]
Tumors of the spine, spinal cord and peripheral nerves
Cerebral aneurysms
Some forms of hemorrhagic stroke, such as subarachnoid hemorrhages, as well as intraparenchymal and intraventricular hemorrhages
Some forms of pharmacologically resistant epilepsy
Some forms of movement disorders (advanced Parkinson's disease, chorea, hemiballism) - this involves the use of specially developed minimally invasive stereotactic techniques (functional, stereotactic neurosurgery)
Intractable pain of cancer or trauma patients and cranial/peripheral nerve pain
Some forms of intractable psychiatric disorders
Malformations of the nervous system
Carotid artery stenosis
Vascular malformations (i.e., arteriovenous malformations, venous angiomas, cavernous angiomas, capillary telangectasias) of the brain and spinal cord
Peripheral neuropathies such as Carpal Tunnel Syndrome and ulnar neuropathy
Moyamoya disease
Congenital malformations of the nervous system, including spina bifida and craniosynostosis

Job field

Neurosurgeons work in a variety of practice settings. Some neurosurgeons practice general neurosurgery, while others choose to limit their practice to specific subspecialties. Some areas of specialty include pediatric, spine, vascular/endovascular, tumor, peripheral nerve, functional, and skull base. Practices range from solo practices to large group practices with multidisciplinary components. Increasingly, neurosurgeons are working together with psychiatrists, neurologists and therapists to provide comprehensive care for patients with neurologic disorders such as back pain. About 20 percent of neurosurgeons practice under the auspices of a university practice plan, while the majority of neurosurgeons maintain private practices often with academic affiliations. Typical work schedules for a neurosurgeon include call coverage for one or more emergency rooms requiring sometimes frequent emergency surgeries. Most averages found online describing typical salary for a practicing neurosurgeon in the United States are between $300,000 and $500,000 annually, though these should be considered as weak small-survey estimates based on the values given by the AAMC.
In the United States neurosurgical training is very competitive and grueling. It usually requires seven years of residency (six to eight) after completing medical school, plus the option of a fellowship for subspecialization (lasting an additional one to three years). Most applicants to neurosurgery training programs have excellent medical school grades and evaluations, have published scientific and/or clinical research, and have obtained board scores of 95 or higher. Resident work hour limits are set at 88 hours per week for many programs, although many neurosurgical programs have had problems meeting these new work hour limits due to the small size of residency programs, the high volume of neurosurgical patients, and the need to provide constant coverage in the ER, OR, and ICU. On average 50-60% of neurosurgery applicants match into a residency program (~85% of US senior medical student applicants).

Physical therapy

Physical therapy

Physical therapy (or physiotherapy) is a healthcare profession concerned with prevention and management of movement disorders occurring throughout the lifespan. Physical therapy can only be performed by either a qualified physical therapist (physiotherapist) or physical therapist assistant (PTA).Individualized management may involve the interaction between patient/client, families, caregivers, and healthcare team in a process of assessing movement potential and in establishing goals and objectives using knowledge and skills unique to physical therapists.
The physical therapists’ distinctive view of the body and its movement needs and potential is central to determining a diagnosis and an intervention strategy and is consistent whatever the setting in which practice is undertaken. These settings will vary in relation to whether physical therapy is concerned with health promotion, prevention, treatment or rehabilitation.

Modern physical therapy

The modern practice of physical therapy was developed in London in 1896, believing hospital patients needed to be mobilized on a regular basis in order to maintain adequate muscle function and mobility. This special interest group grew rapidly and in 1920 the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy was formed in the Country of United Kingdom. Similar organizations were developed in other countries, including the USA.
The care and rehabilitation of the large numbers of amputees resulting from the World Wars of the early 20th century, as well as care of patients suffering from diseases such as polio galvanized the development of physical therapy worldwide. One of its principal advocates was Sister Elizabeth Kenny, an Australian nurse who made a significant impact on the treatment of polio during the 1930s and 1940s.

Physical therapy and science

For decades, Physical therapy practice has been the subject of criticism for its lack of a research base. In a survey of physical therapists, less than five percent(5%) of survey respondents indicated that they regularly used scientific evidence to guide practice decisions. Most physical therapists utilized treatment techniques with little scientific support.

Physical therapy treatment

Guided by the assessment findings, the physical therapist will then develop and facilitate a treatment plan. Aside from the various physiotherapeutic techniques involved in therapy, the treatment regime may include prescribing and advice regarding assistive technology including mobility aids, standing frames, and walking devices. The physical therapist should consider functional progress; and include ongoing review and refinement. Patient education is a key aspect of all treatment plans.
It is difficult to explore the many aspects of physiotherapeutic treatment options, especially considering their ongoing development in the face of an increasing research base. Nonetheless, some examples of treatment options are listed below.

Musculoskeletal (Orthopaedic) physical therapy

Musculoskeletal (Orthopaedic) physiotherapists are able to diagnose, treat and using the range of techniques outlined below help with prevention of pain/pathology.
Various therapeutic physical therapy modalities are available, including exercise prescription (strength, motor control, stretching and endurance), manual therapy techniques like joint mobilization/manipulation, soft tissue massage, and various forms of so-called "electrophysical agents" (such as cryotherapy, heat therapy, iontophoresis and electrotherapy).
Nowadays, in various countries physiotherapists are specializing in orthopaedic medicine. Those people can use diagnostic and therapeutic infiltration/injections to various soft tissue and joints. They are trained to diagnose and treat various orthopaedic conditions.
Despite ongoing research giving a clearer picture regarding the use of various modalities in specific conditions, the benefits of electrotherapy are widely debated.
The practice of physical therapy should not be defined by the use of modalities but rather the integration of examination, history, analysis and restoration of movement dysfunction.

Cardiopulmonary physical therapy

Cardiopulmonary physical therapists work with patients in a variety of settings. They treat acute problems like asthma, acute chest infections and trauma; they are involved in the preparation and recovery of patients from major surgery; they also treat a wide range of chronic cardiac and respiratory conditions like Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF) and post-myocardial infarction (MI). They work with all ages from premature babies to older adults at the end of their life. Physical therapists are pioneering new management techniques for non-organic respiratory problems like hyperventilation and other stress-related disorders as well as leading the development of cardio-pulmonary rehabilitation and non-invasive ventilation.

Neurological physical therapy

Treatment in neurological conditions is typically based upon exercises to restore motor function through attempting to overcome motor deficits and improve motor patterns. To achieve this aim various theoretical frameworks have been promoted, each based upon inferences drawn from basic and clinical science research. Whilst some of these have remained static, others are designed to take into account new developments, perhaps the most notable example being the "movement science" framework. The various philosophies often generate considerable debate.

Integumentary physical therapy

Treatment of conditions involving the skin and related organs. Common conditions include wounds and burns. Treatment interventions include debridement of wounds and burns, dressings, scar prevention and reduction.

Physical therapy education

Programs around the world

As with many aspects of the profession, physical therapy training varies considerably across the world. As a rule, physical therapy studies involve a minimum of four years of tertiary education. Some examples are described here.

In the United Kingdom, university degrees tend to be three rather than four years in length, as British students historically specialise earlier in their education than in most other developed countries. In order to qualify, students are required to complete 1000 hours of clinically based learning: this typically takes place in the final two years; however, some courses also have clinical placement in the first year. Thirty-five universities and tertiary level institutions train physiotherapists in the UK. The vast majority of physiotherapists work within the National Health Service, the state healthcare system.

In Turkey, the Physiotherapy (BPT) education is provided by physiotherapy schools in universities (Hacettepe University, Dokuz Eylül University, İstanbulUniversity, Baskent University, Pamukkale University, Dumlupınar University, Süleyman Demirel University) after high school education. Education takes 4 years or 5 years with preb classes. MSc and PHD education is given by institutes of medical sciences.

In Bangladesh, the Bachelor of Physiotherapy (BPT) course is provided by the Medicine Faculty of University of Dhaka. There are two affiliated institute who provides 5 years of Professional education including one year internship. Bangladesh Physiotherapy Association and Bangladesh Physiotherapy Society are two professional body of Physiotherapy here.

In Pakistan there are 8 colleges offering Bsc. Physiotherapy and 2 colleges offering Msc in PT.physical therapist have a good scope in government and private hospitals and they are awarded 17 grade pay scale.

In Australia, where physical therapy is called physiotherapy, an undergraduate physiotherapy degree (B.Phty) is typically undertaken over a four-year period, with the early components being predominantly theoretical including basic anatomy, biology, physics, psychology, kinesiology, goniometry and physiology. In the latter half of the degree students partake in practical components focusing on musculoskeletal physiotherapy, neuromuscular physiotherapy (notably Souvlis pain mechanisms), paediatric physiotherapy, geriatric physiotherapy, cardiothoracic physiotherapy, and women's health. The program generally progresses with an increasingly clinical focus and usually the final year involves practical placements at clinics, and research. Postgraduate entry into physiotherapy is possible in some institutions, typically involving two years of study following the completion of a related (e.g. exercise physiology or science) Bachelor degree. Students in these courses are often supported by specific Physiotherapy societies, however the introduction of VSU by the Australian Government has reduced the functioning and support of these groups. The University of Melbourne is introducing a new postgraduate physiotherapy degree as part of the Melbourne Model. The Melbourne Model will enable students to enrol in a 3 year undergraduate degree in Biomedicine or Science (commencing in 2008) followed by a 3 year postgraduate Physiotherapy degree.

In Canada, entry-level physiotherapy education is offered at 13 universities. Many of these university programs are at the Master's level, meaning that applicants must have already completed an undergraduate degree prior to applying. (All entry-level programs in Canada are slated to be at the Masters level by 2010.) Many universities also offer graduate programs in physiotherapy, rehabilitation, or related disciplines at the masters or doctoral level. Many physiotherapists may advance their education at these levels in such Clinical Practice Areas as cardiorespirology, geriatrics, neurosciences, orthopaedics, pediatrics, rheumatology, sports physiotherapy, and women's health.

In New Zealand, there are currently two schools of physiotherapy offering four-year undergraduate programs. Many New Zealand physiotherapists work in the private health care system as musculoskeletal physiotherapists and the curriculum reflects the need to prepare graduates for autonomous practice. Students follow an educational program similar to Australia with an emphasis on biomechanics, kinesiology and exercise. Postgraduate study typically involves two years of subject specific learning.

In the Philippines, physical therapy programs are generally 5 years in length and award the B.S. Physical Therapy degree upon graduation. The program consists of 2 years of general education, 2 years of physical therapy subjects, and a final year of internship & research/thesis. Some schools require students to complete a full 12 months of internship while other schools only require 10. During the internship year, students are required to fulfill clinical affiliations with hospitals, outpatient clinics, and other healthcare facilities. Due to the healthcare structure in the Philippines, clinics and therapy departments are often headed by a Physiatrist who writes out specific treatment orders for the PT to follow, and majority of the treatments are cash-based since not a lot of people have health insurance. Recently, the M.S. Physical Therapy postgraduate program has been made available by the University of Santo Tomas (Manila, Philippines). Once a student graduates from the BSPT program, he/she is then required to pass a national licensure exam administered by the Professional Regulation Commission. The said paper-based exam is a grueling 2 day ordeal which consists of approximately 730 questions. It is only administered twice a year and the names of those who pass the exam are published in several national newspapers. Those who pass the exam become licensed PTs and are then entitled to add the initials PTRP (Physical Therapist Registered in the Philippines) after their name.

In South Africa the degree (B.PhysT, B.Sc Physio or B.Physio) consists of four years of general practice training, involving all aspects of Physiotherapy. Typically, the first year is made up of theoretical introduction. Gradually, time spent in supervised practice increases until the fourth year, in which the student generally spends about 80% in practice. In the fourth year, students are also expected to complete Physiotherapy research projects, which fulfills the requirements of an Honours degree. Professional practice and specialization can only be entered into after a state governed, compulsory year of community service is completed by the student after graduation.

In the United Arab Emirates[1] the Bachelor Of Physiotherapy (BPT) consists of a 4 year undergraduate degree program. In the first year of the program they are introduced to pre-clinical subjects such as Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry, Human Behaviour & Socialisation & Basic Medical Electronics & Computers. The students also get hands on experiences in cadaveric dissections while learning Human Anatomy during the first year of the program. The students progressively are introduced to supervised clinical practice and the integrated curriculum offers the best learning experiences in addition to extensive inhouse elearning programs. The course offers Case Based Learning experiences and focusses on Evidence Based Practices. The program culminates with a six month internship ending with a research project work.

In Spain university degrees constist of a 3 years program and several post-graduated courses are available for practitioners. There are 38 universities training physiotherapists in Spain.

In the United States a student completes an undergraduate degree with a strong science component prior to gaining entry into a Doctor of Physical Therapy program. Students complete clinical internships as part of their education.

In the Republic of Ireland, Physiotherapy is available as an undergraduate course in four universities, Trinity College, University College Dublin, Royal College of Surgeons and University of Limerick. Courses are four years in length with clinical practice in the final two years. Students are required to complete 1000 hours of clinical practice before graduation.

In India, Physiotherapy is offered as bachelor degree after a student successfully completes four year course of physiotherapy in a college affiliated to a university. Mangalore city has highest number of physiotherapy colleges in India.

I n Sri Lanka, Physiotherpay is available as a Diploma course for 2years in School of Physiotherapy & Occupational Therapy which is affilited to the National Hospital of Colombo from 1957. After the 6 months of training students were sending to the Hospitals for clinical practise. From the year 2005 Medical Faculties of University of Peradeniya & University of Colombo have started the undergarduate course for 4years.

Following basic physical therapy training, experienced practitioners may undertake further study towards certification as a specialist practitioner. For example, in the United States, experienced physical therapists may apply to take a specialty exam to earn board certification in any of seven sub-specialty areas: Cardiovascular and Pulmonary, Clinical Electrophysiologic, Geriatric, Neurologic, Orthopaedic, Paediatric, and Sports physical therapy.

Qualifications in the United States

Physical Therapists must have a graduate degree from an accredited physical therapy program before taking the national licensing examination. Most educational programs now offer the Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) degree. All states (in the United States) require physical therapists to pass the [National Physical Therapy Examination] after graduating from an accredited physical therapist educational program before they can practice.

According to the American Physical Therapy Association, there were 209 accredited physical therapist programs in 2007. Of the accredited programs, 31 offered the Master of Physical Therapy, and 179 offered the Doctor of Physical Therapy degree. Virtually all programs are in transistion to the DPT degree.

Physical therapist programs start with basic science courses such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and then introduce specialized courses such as kinesiology, biomechanics, neuroanatomy, human growth and development, pathology, diagnostics, physical examination techniques, and therapeutic procedures. Besides classroom and laboratory instruction, students receive supervised clinical education.

Physical therapist education is rigorous, so interested students should attain superior grades in high school and college, especially in science courses. Courses useful when applying to physical therapist educational programs include anatomy, biology, chemistry, social science, mathematics, and physics. Before granting admission, many professional education programs require experience as a volunteer in a physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic.

Physical therapists should have strong interpersonal skills to successfully educate patients about their physical therapy treatments. They should also be compassionate and possess a desire to help patients, and sometimes to interact positively with the patient's family.

Physical therapists are expected to continue professional development by participating in continuing education courses and workshops. A number of states require continuing education to maintain licensure.

Many physical therapists pursue board certification in one of seven specialty areas (orthopaedic, pediatric, neurologic, sports, electrophysiologic, geriatric, and cardio-pulmonary). Board certified specialists must have demonstrated special expertise in their clinical area.

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Health psychology

Health psychology

Health psychology is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life and in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.

Psychology and Law

Legal psychology is a research-oriented field populated with researchers from several different areas within psychology (although social and cognitive psychologists are typical). Legal psychologists explore such topics as jury decision-making, eyewitness memory, scientific evidence, and legal policy. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into use, and typically refers to any non-clinical law-related research.

Forensic psychology

Forensic psychology covers a broad range of practices primarily involving courtroom testimony on given issues. Forensic psychologists are appointed by the court to conduct competency to stand trial evaluations, competency to be executed evaluations, sanity evaluations, involuntary commitment evaluations, provide sentencing recommendations, and sex offender evaluation and treatment evaluations and provide recommendations to the court through written reports and testimony. Most of the questions the court asks the forensic psychologist are not questions of psychology but rather legal questions. For example, there is no definition of sanity in psychology. Rather, sanity is a legal definition that varies from state to state in the United States and from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Therefore, a prime qualification of a forensic psychology is an intimate understanding of the law, especially criminal law.

Educational psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

Psychology (from Greek, literally "to talk about the soul", from ψυχή, "psyche", soul, and λόγος, "logos") is both an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychologists attempt to unravel the functioning of the brain exposed to real life from the perspective of another human or the self, while neurologists would try to understand it from the small scale neurons. Psychologists study such phenomena as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including issues related to daily life—e.g. family, education, and work—and the treatment of mental health problems.
In addition to dissecting the brain's implementation of elementary mental functions, psychology also attempts to understand the role of those functions play in social behavior and in social dynamics, while incorporating the underlying physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental functioning. Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and application concerned with such areas as human development, sports, health, industry, law, and transpersonal psychology.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information and DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.

Chemically, DNA is a long polymer of simple units called nucleotides, with a backbone made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called bases. It is the sequence of these four bases along the backbone that encodes information. This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA, in a process called transcription. Most of these RNA molecules are used to synthesize proteins, but others are used directly in structures such as ribosomes and spliceosomes.

Within cells, DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are duplicated before cells divide, in a process called DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms such as animals, plants, and fungi store their DNA inside the cell nucleus, while in prokaryotes such as bacteria it is found in the cell's cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA, which helps control its interactions with other proteins and thereby control which genes are transcribed.

Physical and chemical properties

DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. The DNA chain is 22 to 26 Ångströms wide (2.2 to 2.6 nanometres), and one nucleotide unit is 3.3 Ångstroms (0.33 nanometres) long. Although each individual repeating unit is very small, DNA polymers can be enormous molecules containing millions of nucleotides. For instance, the largest human chromosome, chromosome number 1, is 220 million base pairs long.

In living organisms, DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a tightly-associated pair of molecules. These two long strands entwine like vines, in the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide repeats contain both the segment of the backbone of the molecule, which holds the chain together, and a base, which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix. In general, a base linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. If multiple nucleotides are linked together, as in DNA, this polymer is referred to as a polynucleotide. The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues.^[ The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand. This arrangement of DNA strands is called antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are referred to as the 5′ (five prime) and 3′ (three prime) ends. One of the major differences between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with 2-deoxyribose being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA. The DNA double helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases attached to the two strands. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are shown below and are attached to the sugar/phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate.

These bases are classified into two types; adenine and guanine are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds called purines, while cytosine and thymine are six-membered rings called pyrimidines. A fifth pyrimidine base, called uracil (U), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. Uracil is not usually found in DNA, occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine, but a very rare exception to this rule is a bacterial virus called PBS1 that contains uracil in its DNA. In contrast, following synthesis of certain RNA molecules, a significant number of the uracils are converted to thymines by the enzymatic addition of the missing methyl group. This occurs mostly on structural and enzymatic RNAs like transfer RNAs and ribosomal RNA.

Animal classification

Animal classification

Animals are classified in a variety of ways. This helps scientists to study the relationships in animal groups and to see the whole animal family tree as it has developed through time. The study of animal classification is called taxonomy.

The basic unit of an animal is the cell. A cell is the smallest unit of any animal or plant. Some animals are one celled, some consist of millions of cells. Each cell is filled with a living matter called protoplasm. It also has a nucleus that is the center of the cell and directs its activities. The cytoplasm is the area outside of the nucleus. Each cell is held together by a cell membrane which is like a very thin skin for the cell. Many cells have different jobs to do in an animal, whether they be bone, blood, skin cells.

A group of the same kinds of cells are called tissues. A group of tissues that work together to do a job in the animal's body is an organ. The stomach, heart, kidneys, lungs are examples of organs. A group of organs that do a number of jobs of the same kind are systems.

Animals are grouped together or classified in a variety of ways. Some of them are:

Whether an animals in one celled or many celled.

How an animal's bodily systems differ.

Animal groupings are similar to plants. The groupings are:

• Kingdom - There are two basic kingdoms, the plant and animal kingdoms. There is a third with animals that bridge the plant and animal kingdom.
• Phylum - Within the plant and animal kingdoms are big groupings called phylum or phyla. Animals are grouped into phyla that have broad similar characteristics.
• Classes - These are a finer division of a phyla.
• Orders - These are divisions of classes.
• Families - These are divisions of
• Genera - These are the divisions of families.
• Species - These are the divisions of genera.

Ecosystem

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms in an area functioning together with all the non-living physical factors of the environment.

An ecosystem is a natural system consisting of all plants, animals and microorganisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.

The term ecosystem was coined in 1930 by Roy Clapham, to denote the physical and biological components of an environment considered in relation to each other as a unit. British ecologist Arthur Tansley later refined the term, describing it as the interactive system established between biocoenosis (a group of living creatures) and their biotope (the environment in which they live).

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged in a set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist. The human ecosystem concept is then grounded in the deconstruction of the human/nature dichotomy, and the emergent premise that all species are ecologically integrated with each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope.

Ecosystems can be bounded and discussed with tremendous variety of scope, and describe any situation where there is relationship between organisms and their environment. A system as small as a household or university, or as large as a nation state, may then be suitably discussed as a human ecosystem. While they may be bounded and individually discussed, (human) ecosystems do not exist independently, but interact in a complex web of human and ecological relationships connecting all (human) ecosystems to make up the biosphere. As virtually no surface of the earth today is free of human contact, all ecosystems can be more accurately considered as human ecosystems.

Human

Humans

Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin: "wise man" or "knowing man") in the family Hominidae (the great apes). Compared to other living organisms on Earth, humans have a highly developed brain capable of abstract reasoning, language, and introspection. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees their upper limbs for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools than any other species. DNA evidence indicates that modern humans originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago, and they now inhabit every continent, with a total population of over 6.6 billion as of 2007.

Like most primates, humans are social by nature; however, humans are particularly adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression, the exchange of ideas, and organization. Humans create complex social structures composed of cooperating and competing groups, ranging in scale from small families and partnerships to species-wide political, scientific and economic unions. Social interactions between humans have also established an extremely wide variety of traditions, rituals, ethics, values, social norms, and laws which form the basis of human society. Humans also have a marked appreciation for beauty and aesthetics which, combined with the human desire for self-expression, has led to cultural innovations such as art, literature and music.

Humans are also noted for their desire to understand and influence the world around them, seeking to explain and manipulate natural phenomena through science, philosophy, mythology and religion. This natural curiosity has led to the development of advanced tools and skills; humans are the only known species to build fires, cook their food, clothe themselves, and use numerous other technologies.

Frogs

Frogs

The frog is an amphibian in the order Anura (meaning "tail-less", from Greek an-, without + oura, tail), formerly referred to as Salientia (Latin saltare, to jump). The name frog derives from Old English frogga,(compare Old Norse frauki, German Frosch, older Dutch spelling kikvorsch), cognate with Sanskrit plava (frog), probably deriving from Proto-Indo-European praw = "to jump".

Adult frogs are characterised by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits, protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. Most frogs have a semi-aquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes, and their larvae, called tadpoles, have gills and develop in water. Adult frogs follow a carnivorous diet, mostly of arthropods, annelids and gastropods. Frogs are most noticeable by their call, which can be widely heard during the night or day, mainly in their mating season.

The distribution of frogs ranges from tropic to subarctic regions, but most species are found in tropical rainforests. Consisting of more than 5,000 species described, they are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates. However, populations of certain frog species are significantly declining.

A distinction is often made between frogs and toads on the basis of their appearance, caused by the convergent adaptation among so-called toads to dry environments; however, this distinction has no taxonomic basis. The only family exclusively given the common name "toad" is Bufonidae, but many species from other families are also called "toads," and the species within the toad genus Atelopus are referred to as "harlequin frogs."